The Manhattan College Engineer tag:mcengineer.org,2008-02-08://1 2008-03-04T15:26:49Z Movable Type Open Source 4.1 Society News tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.27 2008-02-15T06:29:19Z 2008-02-26T19:44:19Z MC Engineer Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers

During this coming semester, the Manhattan College student chapter of IEEE will be going on a number of trips and hosting a few guest speakers. Some of these trips involve an ABC studio tour and a possible trip to IEEE headquarters in Piscataway, NJ. The Manhattan Chapter is also looking to plan a number of events open for all students including the return of the fire fighting robot and the possibility of a solar powered car competition. ]]>
American Institute of Chemical Engineers

The American Institute of Chemical Engineers is preparing for an exciting spring semester! Over the weekend of April 11-13th, Manhattan College will be hosting the 2008 Regional Chemical Engineering Conference which will involve more than 30 schools. Aside from the Chem-E Car and Poster competition, the weekend will be filled with both social and academic events. The first spring semester general meeting will be held on February 28th, with a speaker on Energy Efficiency. A trip is also planned for the Brooklyn Brewery on March 8th.

Chi Epsilon

For the second semester of the year, Chi Epsilon once again has many fun filled events planned. Several guest speakers are anticipated to discuss different topics in today's civil engineering world, such as transportation, U.S. infrastructure, and "green" technology. Just to mention one, Frank Lombardi, the chief engineer of the Port Authority, came on Wednesday, February 15th, to talk about leadership and change in engineering today. In his presentation, Mr. Lombardi discussed topics that extend beyond the common knowledge of civil engineering. He affirmed the significance of a well balanced and open minded individual, essential for succeeding in the engineering world. Please show your support for Chi Epsilon and attend these seminars.

As always Chi Epsilon is looking for tutors and volunteers to help other students as well as the community. Tutoring and community service is a necessary requirement to be a member of Chi Epsilon. If there are any questions please call the civil engineering office @ 718-862-7171 or you can contact our president, Danielle Koch. Have a great semester and remember to study hard! Good luck from your friends of Chi Epsilon.

Pi Tau Sigma

Pi Tau Sigma, the Mechanical Engineering Honor Society, had another successful Holiday Banquet at Rory Dolan's last semester. The festivities promoted departmental fraternity by providing food, music, and entertainment. Although Pi Tau Sigma is currently undergoing a change in leadership, an End of the Year Banquet is on the drawing board for the end of the semester. A "Goldberg Experiment" project is also a prospective activity to take place this semester, so be sure to participate as this would be an amusing feat.

American Society of Mechanical Engineers

The American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) is ready for another exciting semester! Elections for a new executive board are to take place soon, so now is the time to get involved. After last semester's successful trip to Chelsea Beer Brewery, ASME is gearing up for its famous Black Box Competition this spring. This competition challenges engineers (in teams of 4) of all disciplines to be creative with a limited amount of time and materials. Keep an eye out for flyers about sign up dates!

Tau Beta Pi

This semester members of Tau Beta Pi will be attending the Regional Conference at Steven's Institute of Technology in Hoboken, NJ. Several meetings will be held to discuss potential projects that will benefit the school and elections will be held for new officers of the 2008-2009 school year. A tutoring schedule will also be put together and will soon begin in the Fischbach Reading Room.

Eta Kappa Nu

This semester Eta Kappa Nu will once again be offering their tutoring sessions in the Fishbach Reading Room. There will be a new schedule posted on the HKN wall next to the EECE department office. We will also be holding hour annual induction ceremony later this semester for new candidates to the honor society. Elections will take place afterwards to elect a new e-board for the 2008/2009 school year. The new elected officials will be students entering in their senior year and are in the top fourth of their class.

Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers

The Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers have been planning quite a few new activities this semester to keep their members busy. SHPE members are attending the SHPE Regional career conference, which is being held right outside of Washington, D.C. Two other events SHPE will be holding are the Junior High School Olympiad and End of the Year banquet. The Junior High School Olympiad is an event that teaches junior high school students the different disciplines in engineering and gives them an opportunity to work on an engineering project. The End of the Year banquet is SHPE's annual gathering to say good bye to this year's e-board members and say hello to next year's e-board members.

The Society of Biological Engineers

The Society of Biological Engineers is led by Kelly Cassidy. The group has a couple of events lined up for this semester: a trip to the Bodies exhibit at South Street Seaport, a trip to a pharmaceutical manufacturing plant and an end of the year dinner which will be hosted by both the SBE and AIChE.]]> Editor's Note tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.28 2008-02-15T07:13:06Z 2008-02-18T07:15:11Z John J. Lotito III ]]>
The majority of the current editorial board will be graduating this May, including myself. After the senior staff graduates I would like to see the magazine continue to improve and have new students take over to continue where we left off. Please don't let all of our hard work go to waste.

I would like to take this opportunity to introduce the new staff who will be taking over for the next issue and who will continue to improve this great magazine. The next issue will be led by Co-Editor-in-Chiefs Katie Saake and Andrew Manfredi. Both of them have been an instrumental part in helping to get this magazine back on its feet, and will no doubt continue their hard work and dedication next semester with increased improvement and success. With over half of the current staff graduating this semester, Katie and Andrew have been hard at work recruiting students to fill positions on the editorial board and to write articles. Help them out! Step up: take a leadership role, write an article, or plan an event.

In order to truly make Manhattan Engineer grow and succeed, all of the engineering students have to get involved with both the magazine and the group. This can only be accomplished with your participation to enable us to show other schools how strong and intelligent our little college truly is.  

As I close my final address, there are a few people I would like to thank. Without these people, my Manhattan College experience would surely not have been the same.

First, I would like to thank my professors from the EECE, Computer and Math departments for all their support and guidance. A special thanks goes to the former School of Engineering dean, Dr. Richard Heist, who helped us get this magazine off the ground. Next, I would like to thank our new dean, Dr. Gordon Silverman, who has continued to give us even more assistance whenever we needed it.  A debt of gratitude goes to Dr. Richard Carbonaro who has provided the engineers with immense guidance as he serves as the Faculty Advisor.  I'd also like to thank Michelle from the dean's office and Coralie in the Electrical Engineering office. If it weren't for them, there would have been no conference rooms for meetings, no t-shirts, no cookie trays, and certainly no magazine.  A huge thanks goes to Dr. Corine Fitzpatrick, who graciously took me under her wing as a lost freshman and taught me how to be a leader, set my goals, and pursue them until I fulfilled the dreams that I was after. Last, but certainly nowhere near least, I'd like to acknowledge that none of this would have been possible without the support of my great friends, classmates, and family. Thank you.

There are many things that have made the last fours years so enjoyable for me, whether it be the great friends I have made or the experiences I have had. The first people I met my freshman year in Jasper Hall are the same people I call my roommates and best friends now. They have been with me through thick and thin: through rollerblade protein shake spilling, pumpkin pie fights, noogie wars, wrestling matches, crazy cab rides, and a lot more that I will never forget. I hope all of the current underclassmen at Manhattan will have as great of an experience as I did. Take advantage of your four years of college. Get involved with different activities on campus, study hard, and make lifelong friends. If you think high school went fast, wait until you become a senior in college. Seize the day.]]> February 2008 Issue tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.21 2008-02-15T07:20:43Z 2008-02-21T15:26:51Z MC Engineer WINTER-08-cover.jpg

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]]> Dr. Pritchard tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.15 2008-02-15T10:59:57Z 2008-03-07T20:58:19Z Katie Saake prichard-web.jpgHis sarcastic humor and witty personality makes going to his class a delight, even if it's at 8 o'clock in the morning.  But the genius behind this mechanical engineering favorite is Dr. Pritchard's ability to teach a class with impeccable intelligence and plausibility.]]>
Growing up in a very poor family in England, Dr. Pritchard had many ambitions when he was young.  In high school, he loved physics and hoped to pursue it in college.  It Britain, however, colleges would pay tuition for students to went to school to become engineers, not so much for becoming physicists.  Deciding physics was too abstract anyway, Dr. Pritchard went to college to become an engineer.  He loved the fact that engineering had to do with "practical" physics done in everyday life.

Dr. Pritchard received a bachelor of technology degree from Bradford University in England in 1971.  That same year he made the choice to come to America, which he describes as one of his most important decisions.  Here he attended Stony Brook University, where he hoped to earn his Ph.D.  He had come from a family of mostly blue collar workers and so wanted to make a name for himself.  Dr. Pritchard's determination to become a teacher was based upon one or two teachers he had in high school that really made the experience of learning interesting.  Unable to attain his Ph.D. at Stony Brook, Dr. Pritchard did receive his masters in mechanical engineering from the college and then took a break from schooling for a while. 

For a short period of time he worked as a design engineer for Ford Motor Company in Michigan, where he designed and developed various transmission components for automobiles.  Still, this was not what he had hoped to be doing with his degrees; in his mind, Dr. Pritchard truly wanted to teach. 

In 1981 when he was 33 years old, Dr. Pritchard came to Manhattan College without his Ph.D. and started to work as an instructor.  While teaching he went to school to continue working on his Ph.D.  During this time, Dr. Pritchard depicts one week as probably the most amazing one of his life.  In that one week he received his Ph.D. from Columbia University, got tenure, and bought himself a new home.  He says that if he had not gotten his Ph.D. that week, nothing that came afterwards would have been possible.

When it comes to teaching, Dr. Pritchard considers his favorite part to be working with young people.  He loves to learn new things from them and even with them.  He is a true advocate for furthering his students and his own knowledge of computers and various software programs.  Dr. Pritchard believes that a good knowledge of computers will help any student exceed in their studies and professional life.  

Dr. Pritchard's accomplishments range from winning teacher of the year awards from the mechanical department on several occasions, to publishing two books.  His publications include "Introduction to Fluid Mechanics" and "Mathcad: A Tool for Engineering Problem Solving".  He is extremely proud of these academic endeavors.  Personally, Dr. Pritchard says that his biggest accomplishment was coming to the United States.  He recommends that every person should experience living in another country at some point in their life.  In addition, Dr. Pritchard tried to revive this very magazine a few years ago within the department.  The magazine was then passed on to its current faculty advisor, Dr. Carbonaro.  He hopes that more students will get involved in such a great publication.

Today, Dr. Pritchard is happily married to his wife Penelope, a retired elementary school teacher.  He has no children, but if you ever visit his office be sure to ask about his adorable new puppy, Sushi.  There is a picture of the black, blue-eyed, toy poodle right on his desk.  He and his wife own a summer home in Pennsylvania, where Sushi has five acres of land to run on.  He describes owning a summer home, coming from such humble backgrounds, as a huge accomplishment as well.

His advice to the current engineering students at Manhattan College is to study hard.  Unlike when he was a student, Dr. Pritchard says that today you need to study on a regular basis.  He recommends that students do all their assignments early and that there definitely be no crunching.  Read the book and practice good study habits because it will pay off big time in the work field.  This belief is represented whenever you sit in one of Dr. Pritchard's classes.  Do not dare to hand in an assignment late or come strolling in fifteen minutes after class has started.  Dr. Pritchard treats you as you will be treated in the professional world.  He prepares you for what you will encounter in only a few short years.  This is exactly the sort of firmness that is necessary in a college environment, and what makes him such a fantastic professor.

So, for anyone out there who has never had Dr. Pritchard or is just starting his class this semester, don't automatically be afraid when you meet the strict man with a British accent staring back at you from the front of the classroom.  His goal, most definitely, is to help you succeed and become a better student and professional.  He is a man who had ambitions, accomplished them, and wants you to do the same. ]]> ENGS 115 Final Competition tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.49 2008-02-15T15:41:24Z 2008-03-07T21:25:10Z Lego robots race to the finish line! MC Engineer

]]> Message From Dean Silverman tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.18 2008-02-15T18:28:09Z 2008-02-19T06:24:43Z Dr. Gordon Silverman "Oh that a man's reach should exceed his grasp, or what's a Heaven for?"
- Robert Browning

Recently I was explaining the broad scope of engineering, and the many careers that might follow after obtaining a college degree, to a group of interested students and parents and I asked the following question, "How many know who 'A-Rod' is?"  ]]>
A few of those eminent professionals who received degrees from Manhattan include: Lillian Borrone (Civil/Transportation); James Cooley (Math/EE); Dominic DiToro (EE/Civil); Charles Thornton (Civil); Eugene McGrath (ME); Donald O'Connor (Envl); Jerome J. Cuomo (Chem). (Within the parentheses I have noted the disciplines for which they are noted. I will be happy to give you a tour so that you can see the full complement of those who have been so honored.) It should be pointed out that fifteen members elected to the NAE from an institution the size of Manhattan might entitle us to the institution with the highest per capita count in the nation.

While winning Nobel prizes or election to the NAE can make engineers proud, the record of successful engineering participation in public, "policy-making" bodies and in the halls of Congress, in particular, is not as encouraging. The Congressional Research Service of The Library of Congress publishes the CRS Report for Congress  - specifically for Members and Committees of Congress - is a great resource for discovering facts about our legislators. Included in the comprehensive statistical record is a professional profile of its members. I note the following summary: "The overwhelming majority of Members have a college education. The dominant professions of Members are public service/politics, business and law." Among the Members one finds: 23 with some medically related training (e.g. doctors, nurses, dentists, pharmacists), some 49 with prior experience in government, 271 state legislators or governors, 16 with a record in law enforcement, 6 with science training or experience, 6 from the media (broadcast) community, 5 accountants, a pilot and an astronaut. And, oh yes, ONE BIOMEDICAL ENGINEER. Two of us (engineers) made it to the White House - one could even argue for an additional "half" because George Washington was a Land Surveyor for part of his life. I sometimes challenge engineers with the question about engineering Presidents (and you can come visit me to find out the answer).

What you learn at Manhattan is fundamental to the art of engineering - solving problems. Lawyers who make up the great majority of legislators don't solve problems readily; some argue that they may even exacerbate problems. A cadre of engineers in Congress might approach problems as we have been trained to do at Manhattan: clearly identify the problems that need to be solved; propose concise solutions (using diagrams and the occasional Power Point presentation); build a consensus without the qualitative arguments we find in the current legislature; find the data; discuss the numbers; and find a process to reach solutions. In short, it might be a great breath of fresh air. Engineers would provide wonderful resources for addressing the challenging issues that confront us in the 21st century: education; our place in the global economy and its problems (climate changes); welfare; the budget; social security; national security. The list is virtually inexhaustible.

What should you be striving for as engineers and graduates of Manhattan? I invite you to expand your horizons, thinking, and ambition as personified in the title of my essay and as noted by the quotation written by Robert Browning. Live up to the core beliefs embodied in Manhattan's Mission: maintain high standards; bring to bear your faiths, values and ethics in your daily activities; continue to grow through lifelong learning. Live by the motto "sic itur ad astra" - loosely translated as "reach for the stars" and first uttered by the Roman poet Virgil. Become engaged in family and the community, work to improve our lives and you may become a Congressman, Senator, President (?).]]> FCC Auctions 700MHz Wireless Spectrum tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.25 2008-02-15T21:49:24Z 2008-02-18T07:01:28Z Miguel Hernandez
The FCC, otherwise known as the Federal Communications Commission, is the government agency in charge of regulating all non-Federal Government communications. This includes all radio and television broadcasts, all international communications that originate in the U.S., and all interstate communications, such as satellite and cable transmission. Starting on January 24th, 2008, the auction for the 700MHz will begin. The reason why this frequency spectrum will be available is because of the digital television broadcast switch that will happen next year. Beginning in February 2009, all television broadcast signals will be changed to high definition. More information about this switch can be found in the accompanying article. This switch to high definition broadcasting will free up the frequency spectrum that was being used to broadcast television channels on standard definition, specifically channels 52 to 69. With this open wireless spectrum, which runs from 698MHz to 806MHz, the FCC has decided to have an open auction in order to sell the spectrum to any takers.

The auction is being broken up into different "blocks" of the spectrum, which will each be auctioned off on its own. The blocks are divided up into blocks "A", "B", "C", "D" & "E", and all have different levels of value to the parties involved in the auction. The most popular one being "C" block, because of it being part of the Ultra High Frequency (UHF) band, and because of this, it is estimated to be the one to pull in the most money. There is a special stipulation along with the "C" block auction in regards to the "open access" rule that comes along with this block. The FCC applied an extra rule for "C" block, in that, if the auction for the block reaches the $4.64 billion reserve, the winner of the block must use that block as an open access spectrum.  This is a deal that many companies, such as Google, have fought for, while telecommunication companies, such as Verizon and AT&T, have fought against. This is because of the restrictions that those kinds of companies have placed on their wireless technology. An open access format will allow any device that has the capability of supporting the appropriate protocols be allowed to connect to the "C" block range of frequency. Meanwhile, "D" block is one of the least popular blocks in the auction, mainly because it is the public service band, and is currently falling well short of the expected $1.33 billion reserve that the FCC expected to get for it.

The main players that are rumored to be participating in the auction are mainly telecommunication companies, such as Verizon Wireless, AT&T, and Frontline Wireless. Over 200 companies were accepted into the final list of participants of the auction. An unsurprising party participating in this auction is internet giant Google, applying for the auction as Google Airwaves Inc. The reason this is unsurprising is because there are many rumors that Google is trying to start up their own Google phone service, a gPhone of sorts. If Google were to win the auction, they would use the airwaves as an open access platform for their service, allowing devices to be used openly within that spectrum, and also allow the spectrum to be free to lease wholesale.

Google's approach to 700MHz spectrum is a unique one when compared to what the telecommunication corporations plan to do with the spectrum, which, one can assume, is mainly expanding their network power. Word has it however, through Business Week, that several phone companies out of Japan, such as KDDI, DoCoMo, and SK Telecom, are making waves within the auction by teaming up with Google in winning the auction on the infamous "C-Block" spectrum. This is intriguing because of the fact that it may lead whichever company that wins to bringing their cell phones over here to North America, where our phones are clearly and easily outclassed by the cell phone technology that can be found in Asia. If this were to happen, these new cell phones will be able to change the way cell phones are viewed and use here in the states. They will become viable devices for various applications that have failed to catch on, mobile-wise at least, for year, including internet browsers, mobile gaming, and more.

One more interesting use of the 700MHz spectrum would be to apply Toyota's recently announced wireless vehicle-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-pedestrian communication technology. By using the 700MHz spectrum, which has the added advantage of being able to penetrate walls, as opposed to the 5.8GHz, which can be easily blocked by various obstructions, it will be possible to establish a communication system between vehicles in order to help prevent accidents. This plan is also expected to be implemented in Japan with their own 700MHz spectrum once they make the switch over to digital TV in the upcoming years.

This auction is a one of a kind, and is already underway as you read this. Each passing business day will include 3 rounds of betting for all 5 blocks, and each passing day will add millions upon millions of dollars into the auction for airspace. It will be interesting to see how the auction turns out, and how much money it will eventually pull in for the government, with the auction currently topping $10 billion for the total spectrum as of this writing, with over 5 weeks of bidding to go. We will find out how the wireless landscape will change when the auction concludes come this spring.]]> Words From the Unwise tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.26 2008-02-15T22:14:12Z 2008-02-18T19:30:55Z John Bekisz Jr. How to spend four years of your life...

It has been a short run for me here as the editorial author for the Manhattan Engineer; so short that it only lasted two issues.  I can tell my last article has influenced many of you (especially the main campus folk) as I've seen so many new faces around Leo.  I'm still waiting for a thank you check from the bookstore for boosting their sales. ]]> In this last article I'd like to relay some words of wisdom to you, my fellow students, which have helped me survive these past four years at Manhattan College.  I'm no philosophy major nor am I trying to preach to you like your parents and professors have for so long.  However, there are some things that I feel you must know and that, regardless if you want to hear them or not, I'm going to tell you.  Of course I realize that you can stop reading this at any moment, but I'll just assume you don't.

Your parents and your professors may be telling you that the most beneficial thing to come out of your college career is your GPA.  I may agree with this to some degree, however, I feel this is not the most important.  Your GPA will probably only be looked at by the companies you interview with for your first job.  In order to get those first job interviews, however, you must have connections and contacts at companies.  This is the most important element that you must graduate with.  Now, I'm not saying you should keep a GPA below a 2.0 just as long as you have contacts.  The grades are important too, but I'm assuming that as Manhattan College students, you all have the capacity and the ability to keep your GPA above a 3.0.  

"By golly John, how am I ever going to get contacts for companies that exist in the 'real world'?"  It's so simple, the answer is lying right in front of you: CLUBS!!  Join clubs!  Do it now!  If you're not in one club or organization at this school, stop reading this magazine and join a club.  Marketing majors should be in the marketing club, electrical and computer engineers should be in IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers), and mechanical engineers should be in ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers).  That's the only business club I know of, but I'm sure there are more!  There's also some kissing up you have to do.  Know who your dean and department chair person is.  Say hello to them in the hallway.  I'm actually begging you to do this.  They are like a bridge to the 'real world': they actually talk to people in this alternate world.  Job opportunities, internships, and other crazy 'real world' stuff is always going on inside their offices and they are always looking for that one student that stands out who they can hand these opportunities to.     

"Gee whiz, John, my professors say I need at least 6 hours a week outside of class which means if I'm taking five courses, that's 45 hours a week!  When will I ever have time for clubs?"   Let me tell you this now, if you are spending 45 hours a week outside of class and are struggling with the courses, you need to switch your major.  You are most likely not even interested in the course material.  It's okay to switch too.  It's tough to make a decision on what you will be doing for the rest of your life during your first two years of college.  I switched from psychology to civil engineering to computer engineering.  Guess what?  I'm graduating on time and I really enjoy my major now.  

To get back on track here, one of the best things this college offers is the Mentor Program.  If you are a student in this school, you should apply for the Mentor Program.  Although my mentor was in my old civil engineering major, he has still become a great professional friend and has provided me with ample advice and experience working with those in the mysterious realm of the 'real world.'  I joined IEEE since I am a computer engineering major and that has led to more contacts and an internship.  I was offered, and took, a work from home internship with IEEE doing website updates for one of their many sub-societies.   Yes, you read that correctly.  I have an internship working from home.  Before you ask, yes, it is as awesome as it sounds.  I joined SHPE (Society of Hispanic and Professional Engineers) which has taken me to Philadelphia twice and Washington D.C. by the end of February for career conferences.  Guess what?  I made more contacts there and it has led to more job opportunities and interviews!  My final example is my favorite, since I'm sure you're all expecting it: the Manhattan Engineers.  Aside from providing you with a little soft reading after you've battled through "Algorithms in Biology," I'm also the business manager in charge of all the advertisements that bother you throughout the magazine.  You're welcome, by the way.  Having to get in contact with representatives at companies and actually meeting some of them have led to potential job opportunities even before they've seen my transcript and resume.  

The end of the page and my consistent two-article blabbering comes to an end.  Thank you for tolerating my ramblings for two issues.  I hope that there is an author out there worthy enough to waste your time as much as I have for the past two issues.  I want to leave you with a double thought:  (1) get above a 3.0, join clubs and organizations and I guarantee that no matter what your major is you will go incredibly far (from what I've heard); (2) don't ever go to China Wine if you're craving good Chinese food.  Thank you Manhattan College, I've made my best friends here and have truly been able to set myself up for the life that I want to live.
]]> A Closer Look at ENGS 115: Introduction to Engineering tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.19 2008-02-15T23:50:34Z 2008-02-19T06:22:55Z Frank Cimmino and James Wellington
Computer Engineering
Computer engineers design and create all types of computers ranging from microprocessors to supercomputers, as well as program robots and other computer controlled applications.  The computer engineering lab was organized by Dr. Mauro and consisted of working with LEGO Mindstorm robots.  These robots are an excellent representation of what computer engineers do.  In the computer engineering module we primarily learned the basics and programmed the robots to run through a series of easy tasks.  Programming the robots was accomplished through the use of the LEGO Mindstorms software.  The tasks ranged from making a series of beeps and tones to traveling a set distance.  By the end of the module our robots were able to use a touch sensor to complete a maze.  In the computer engineering homeroom students had to construct radio controlled "Aggressor Robots".  These "Aggressor Robots" had to be able to travel through pipes and collect optical, touch and infra-red data.  With this information, the robot must navigate the pipes and find and destroy enemy robots.

Environmental Engineering
Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering to improve our environment.  Dr. Carbonaro taught the environmental engineering section of ENGS 115.  In the environmental engineering module lab we designed and built water filters.  These filters were tested for their ability to remove blue dye and clay particles from the water.  The filter's design was based on two important factors.  The first factor was the amount of carbon (GAC), sand and gravel used to fill the filter.  The use of three different sized substances filtered out the larger particles from the water.  The second factor was the amount of coagulant used to force the particles in the water to combine and become larger particles.  Cost efficiency was also an important part in the design portion of this lab.  The environmental homeroom project was to analyze Tibbets Brook to see if it is safe for aquatic life.  They tested for Ammonia, Nitrate, Heavy Metals and other harmful substances that might be present in the water.  After the test they sent the results to New York City Parks Department so that they can learn more about this stream.

History and Ethics
The history and ethics module is separated into two topics.  The first is the history and evolution of engineering.  Dr. Freyne, the professor of this module, uses the textbook, The Works, to show the class how engineers affect infrastructure and how their role in the infrastructure has developed throughout history.  Dr. Freyne then gives the students the "NSPE Code of Ethics for Engineers".  This document is the official code in which engineers are expected to live by.  The code of ethics is an essential aspect of all the engineering disciplines and it is required for engineers to follow it to maintain their license to practice engineering.  The history and ethics module guides freshmen engineers in the right moral direction and helps them understand the importance of their future career.

Mechanical Engineering
Mechanical engineering involves the application of physics to analyze, design, manufacture and maintain mechanical systems.  The mechanical engineering section was taught by Dr. Walker.  In the mechanical engineering module lab we used two types of machines to complete different tasks.  The first machine was a visual system that is used to check and control the quality of a product.  This part of the lab consisted of us using this machine to quickly measure the area and perimeter of an object.  The other machine we used was a Computer Controlled Cutting Machine which precisely cuts and creates object with little human interference.  We programmed the machine to cut the plastic how we wanted and pressed start.  The Mechanical Engineering Homeroom Lab consists of constructing a machine that can lift the heaviest weight possible.  This machine has to be built of only wood and metal and must meet certain design requirements.  At the end of the semester the machines were  tested and judged based on their performance.

Civil Engineering
The civil engineering module is taught by Dr. Saukin.  In the civil engineering module lab we took four types of concrete and performed a slump test to measure their workability.  Next we filled four cylinders with the concrete and placed them into a curing room so they could harden.  After three days, we took the cylinders out and performed a strength test on them using a stress machine.  The four cylinders strength ranged between 870 and 1500 psi.  The Civil Engineering Homeroom project was to design a bridge that can withstand forces at many different points along its frame.  Before we actually decided on what design we had to calculate all the various forces and evaluate each joint like a real civil engineer.  Once we evaluated all the joints we decided on a design for our bridge.  At the end of the semester we tested our bridges with different weights at different locations.

Chemical
There are many different career paths that chemical engineers can work within such as the pharmaceutical, fuel and food industries.  Dr. Anid, the chemical engineering professor teaches the module.  For both the chemical engineering module and homeroom project the students learn the chemistry behind brewing beer.  The lab for the homeroom students varies from the module lab due to the time constraint.  The homeroom students start from scratch and brew beer through a process in which sugar is extracted from the grains.  The module lab uses pre-extracted malt.  Making foods and beverages such as beer is a large field for chemical engineers.  By engaging in this project the students can obtain a better understanding of if they would enjoy pursuing a career in chemical engineering.

Electrical
Electrical engineering can be broken into two basic categories: information and technology.  The electrical engineering module was taught by Dr. Prans.  For the module's lab the students study a square wave.  A few square waves frequently studied in electrical engineering are electromagnetic waves, voltage and sound waves.  In the lab, a program called Labview is used to simulate a square wave and analyze it.  In the electrical engineering homeroom, Dr. Prans' students do a project where they design and build a filter circuit for an amplifier.  The first step of the project is to use problem solver in Microsoft Excel to determine the values for the resistors and capacitors of the circuit.  Next, the students design and simulate the circuit in a program called PSpice.  Finally, the students build the circuit and connect it to a record player and speaker to test it.  This project teaches the students the design process used by engineers and gives the class a good feel for what an electrical engineer does.]]> What Can Vapster Do For You? tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.24 2008-02-16T01:45:33Z 2008-02-19T05:40:28Z Andrew Brace
The fuel vaporizing and mixing system, Vapster, works by preheating the gasoline sent to the engine to about 350 degrees Fahrenheit, which is enough to turn it into a vapor before it enters the combustion chamber. (Brown)  Currently only about 15% of the energy from the gas in your car gets used to move your car.  That leaves about 85% as wasted energy, of which about 62% is heat energy. (Fueleconomy.gov)  Vaporized fuel injection systems use much of this wasted heat energy to do useful work by converting the fuel into vapor.  To heat the fuel to this temperature, the Vapster system draws heat from the exhaust.  The fuel is gravity-fed into a stainless steel chamber which absorbs a lot of heat form the exhaust. (Demory and Morse)

The engine cannot just start up using the Vapster system.  The engine must first warm up to the temperature needed to vaporize the fuel.  To do this, the engine must run using the existing fuel delivery system until it is hot enough for the exhaust heat to be able to vaporize the fuel.   Once the optimum temperature is achieved, the original fuel system is shut off, and the Vapster system takes over. The vaporized fuel is then pressurized to 2-4 psi.  This pressurization is achieved using an external, battery-operated pump, and it forces the gas vapor to move into the engine through the throttle body and into the cylinder.  A small rise in horsepower can actually be made by increasing the pressure in the pump. (Demory and Morse)

The reason that Vaporized fuel injection works to achieve better gas mileage and less pollution is interesting and makes a lot of sense when you think about it.  Vaporized fuel injection systems can achieve much better gas mileage because they burn the gasoline more completely. In cars today, the main reason for inefficiency is that the gas is not burned completely.  By vaporizing the fuel, it can burn more completely.  When vaporized, the fuel will mix more readily and easily with the air in the combustion chamber and will offer more surface area for the combustion reaction to occur. (Chu)

The Vapster system is very beneficial to the environment for the reason that it uses less air and oxygen than a normal car does. When running on vapor, the airflow into the engine is usually decreased by about one third to one half the amount of airflow in a normal car. (www.freeenergynews.com) This is great for the environment because less air is being used in the burning process and thus less carbon dioxide is emitted.  The Vapster system works to reduce the amount of air sent into the combustion chamber by incorporating a ball or butterfly valve on the existing carburetor.  This ball or butterfly valve is only used when the engine is running on vapor.  As stated before the car must use the original fuel system to heat the engine enough to be able to vaporize the fuel.  During this time the engine operates under its normal airflow, and reduces airflow only when the Vapster system kicks in.

The only drawback with the Vapster system is that currently it must be used in engines that have a fixed RPM.  So this system would be ideal for hybrids, generators, tractors and farm equipment, boats, and other fixed RPM engines.  There is a slowing mechanism built into the patent design that works by introducing misted water into the system, but this component requires much further testing and development. (Freeenergynews.com )  If this system of misted water is developed more, the system should be able to run effectively in non fixed RPM engines.

This year, the Vapster system was successfully tested by a test engineer from Applied Consumer Services INC.  The test engineer witnessed four mileage tests in Rowley's 1993 Mazda Miata, which had one of his patented Vapster systems in it.  In this test the car ran on one gallon at a time until it stopped.  The car was driven on a turnpike so that the road would be level for the entire trip.  The gasoline used for all four tests was Shell 89.  For each test the temperature of the engine block, the engines RPM's, the wind direction and the driving speed (65 mph), were recorded so a comparison could be made later. The test engineer concluded for the results of the four control and four experimental tests that the Vapster system averaged a 27.4% increase in fuel economy. (Applied Consumer Services Incorporated)  The data from this test can be seen in Table 1.

Lessening the consumption of fuel and pollution is very important today and will only get more and more important in the future. Vaporized fuel Injection looks like a very promising means of lessening gasoline consumption and pollution. Gerald Rowley's Vapster system is working very well and proving its value in the results of the various tests it has undergone.  Hopefully in the near future some automobile or engine company will invest in further development of this invention and start putting Vapsters in its engines on a mass scale.  

Works Cited

Applied Consumer Services, Inc.  Mileage Performance testing of Vapster Patented Fuel             Vaporizing System.  <http://www.vaporfuelsystems.com/VAPSTERTEST.pdf>

Brown, Warren. (2007) The 50% MPG Gain That Detroit Won't Touch.                                   <http://www.washingtonpost.com/wpdyn/content/article/2007/08/23/AR2007082301643.html>

Chu, Alex.  Vaporized Fuel Injection System.   <http://www.vfis.us/>

Demoray, Kyle and Morse, Ben.   (2006)  Chadron State College Industrial Technology             Newsletter. <http://www.csc.edu/ite SpringITNewsletter.pdf

Fueleconomy.gov, <http://www.fueleconomy.gov feg/atv.shtml->

Freeenergynews.com. Vapster Fuel vaporizing System.                                                         <http://www.freeenergynews.com/Directory/VapSter/ >]]> Vive La Resistance tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.23 2008-02-16T03:41:23Z 2008-02-20T16:12:10Z Electrical engineering professor Dr. Prans dives into the many applications of resistors. Dr. George Prans 100_16721.jpgResistance, in particular the kind that is in opposition to motion, may or may not be beneficial.  All motion resistance involves one object's atoms bumping against another object's atoms and exchanging kinetic energy, which on a microscopic level is heat.

For example, any good scout can start a fire by rubbing two sticks together, causing the surface wood molecules to vibrate faster and faster until their frenzied dance leads to combustion with oxygen.
]]> Resistance related to fluids rubbing against a solid object is an important area of study in the mechanical engineering field of "fluid dynamics", where examples can range from the resistance of water flowing in pipes, to the air drag on a moving car, or a space shuttle suffering blazing re-entry into the atmosphere...or even plaque in a coronary artery slowing the flow of blood.  The narrowing of an artery causing resistance also has an analog in vehicular traffic flow.  The GW Bridge is famous for cars slowing their pace due to the narrowing of traffic lanes (construction, breakdowns, toll booths, etc.) causing some drivers to gain a form of kinetic energy (getting hot under the collar).

Heat conducts through solids by the transfer of vibrational kinetic energy from atom to atom.  How easily the heat current, Q (watts), conducts through a solid due to an applied temperature difference, ΔΤ, is described by Fourier's law, Q = ΔΤ / RTH , where RTH is the thermal resistance of the solid.  Think of the temperature difference as the driving force and the heat current, Q, as the resulting flow.

Electricity conducts through solids by the flow of unbound electrons.  Electrical resistance is due to the fixed atoms or molecules getting in the way of the flow of electrons.  A voltage source acts as a force or pressure to drive those electrons through the solid from one end to the other.  As the electrons bounce off the atoms they impart some kinetic energy causing the fixed atoms to vibrate more, elevating the temperature of the material.  Besides the type of atoms, the geometry of the solid also affects its electrical resistance.   In 1827 Georg Ohm discovered the linear relationship I = ΔV/R , where ΔV, the voltage difference across the resistor, is like electrical force or pressure, R is resistance in ohms, and I is the resulting current in amperes.   It's the electrical analog to Fourier's heat law.     

Electrical resistance is so useful in electrical engineering that "resistors" are manufactured to have particular values of resistance.  The simplest electrical resistor is the ubiquitous, fixed resistor put into electronic circuits to control/limit current flow.  Those unheralded resistors have constant resistance values (in "ohms") and, as with all resistors, are "passive" in the sense that they have no energy source of their own.  Some fixed resistors are made to take advantage of the exchange of heat from the electrons to the atoms.  Examples are electrical heaters and incandescent light bulbs.       

Slightly more complex resistors are those whose resistance can be changed by turning a knob or sliding a lever.  They are "potentiometers", where controlling a resistance manually may be used, for example, to adjust the volume of a radio.

The virtuosos of all the resistors are the ones which respond to outside parameters, changing their resistance to reflect the external conditions.  They are known as "transducers", transmogrifying some physical parameter into an electrical signal which can easily be detected, filtered, amplified, stored, displayed on a computer screen, etc.  All fields of engineering use them to convert from a physical parameter to an electrical signal.   The remainder of this article briefly describes some of the many sensitivities of resistors to physical inputs.

Some of the earliest electrical transducers used the sensitivity of a solid's electrical resistance to temperature.  These electrical thermometers are called "thermistors".   Today, many cars use a heated platinum wire's resistance change, when cooled by air rushing past it to act as an "air mass meter", for measuring air flow so as to regulate fuel mixture.
An early engineering application of resistance changing with pressure is the carbon microphone used to transduce sound waves.  An increase in sound pressure makes the carbon denser and lowers its electrical resistance.

Simple light meters can be made using a semiconductor as the material because its resistance can be very sensitive to light.  

An example of a geometric transducer is a rotary sliding-contact potentiometer, whose resistance can be used to monitor the throttle plate's angular position in a car's engine.  

If a small change in length is to be measured, a thin flexible metallic resistor can be used.  As the metal is deformed (strained), its atomic spacing changes and consequently so does its electrical resistance.  Such a motion transducer is called a "strain gauge" with uses ranging from measuring deformation in a bending beam to the expansion of land over a slowly awakening volcano.   

The salinity of water can be measured using the water's resistance.  The water content of lumber is measured using the resistance of the wood.  A bathroom water leak can be detected by a special resistor on the floor.

Newer applications of electrical resistance's sensitivity to chemical stimulants are evolving using exotic solids.   An electronic "nose on a chip" uses the resistive sensitivity of a particular solid to detect a particular odor.  Pathogen sensors chips are being developed using single strands of DNA on a resistive substrate.  One being tested uses DNA, which must be kept alive and nourished, and can only bond with a certain bio-agent gene.  Once the DNA binds, a process occurs changing the resistance of a sensor below the DNA.    

Some modern nonvolatile magnetic memories use the "giant magnetoresistive" effect, where a magnetic field produces a change in the resistance of a ¬nanometers-thick conductive layer.  The devices make good magnetic switches that are so reliable some implanted defibrillators now incorporate them, and the effect is commonly used by hard-drive read heads.

Information in today's ubiquitous flash drives, and some other RAM memories, is read by measuring the resistance of the transistor(s) holding the digital memory bit(s).

In some sense, our subject the resistor can even claim parentage to the transistor, whose name comes from "transfer resistance".  Transistors act like controlled resistors, and they "transfer" resistance values from one end of the transistor to another.   But that's another story, and I have to go suffer the resistance of the GW Bridge at rush hour.]]> Power UP tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.20 2008-02-16T04:00:10Z 2008-02-19T05:49:58Z Can "Smart Grids" throughout the U.S. and the EU supply the ever-increasing power demand? Mark Lezaja
Researchers are calling these grid systems of the future smart-grids, or intelligent-grids.  The entire grid system envisioned by researchers will be more twenty-first century, meaning more computerized and will be able to "think" on its own with little human intervention.  This idea is known as a "plug-and-play" application.  With this type of smarter technology it is envisioned that active sources can be simply connected to the grid almost anywhere.  The system as a whole will be able to balance out the electrical power delivered to the loads to prevent surges and allow greater reliability in energy.  This idea is necessary for the improvement of power quality and reliability.  

The future vision of the power grid is one that is less centralized; instead of a few large generation plants, there are many smaller ones.  Cleaner generation technologies call for this because their way of generating power is variable.  For example, wind and photo-voltaic power (solar power) can change from day to day, create an uneven balance in generation, and as a result, cause uneven distribution.  By creating a smarter grid and integrating it with electrical storage devices, generation, storage, and distribution of the previously mentioned technologies becomes more plausible.  Not only will it run on its own, it will use newer, cleaner technology to improve both generation and distribution (i.e., photo-voltaic, wind, and combined heat and power technologies).  These technologies, if integrated into the grid system, will become useful for a safer generation of electricity and will be more beneficial to the environment.  

Today, large generation plants emit CO2, which is harmful to the environment and is a major concern, especially relating to issues surrounding global warming.  As a result, the reduction of CO2 emissions is imperative.  Wind turbines and solar panels emit virtually no CO2 gas, which makes these generation technologies more environmentally friendly.  

A major advantage of these generation technologies is that they can be placed closer to where they are delivering power.  Today much of the power distributed to local consumers is generated great distances away.  By transmitting power long distances, it is subject to power loss.  However, generating power close to the loads creates greater efficiency of distribution, which means very little loss of power generated in proportion to the power that is used.  These new technologies also give consumers more options on their power consumption and generation.

Benefits envisioned for future smart-grids include an increased interaction between the suppliers and consumers of energy, new marketing strategies, and money making possibilities.  The smart-grid system will allow for a two-way flow of energy.  In the current grid system, consumers have no choice on where they receive the power they use; it is a monopolized system.  The new technologies of the future grid system will allow consumers to have a many options concerning their power intake and/or distribution.  For instance, consumers will be able to place solar panels on their homes and in the event that the grid is in need of more power, the consumer will be able to sell their excess energy back to the grid.  This provides a chance for the consumers to become part of the money making generators that supply the grid with power.  

Not only will consumers be able to supply power to the grid, as stated previously, there will be options of power consumption, as well.  This idea is similar to that of cell-phone service providers.  A large industry that can not afford power interruptions, such as black outs or power surges, will be able to purchase power at a reasonable rate.  Residential consumers will be given the option to purchase a not so reliable power service for a cheaper price, accepting the possibility of a few black outs a year.  These new plans open many money making opportunities for new businesses and also help consumers save money on their electrical bills.  

The European Union has set up many organizations to plan how they will go about converting the current grid system to the new smart-grid.  Organizations, such as Leonardo Energy and The European Technology Platform Smart Grids have already devised plans to begin the transition.  The main goals of the European smart-grid are to increase efficiency and reliability of transmission and distribution systems using distribution generation, to create an interactive grid for manufacturers and consumers, and to effectively integrate the technologies of renewable energy resources to decrease large scale generation.  The European Union's central idea is to create cleaner energy in efforts to benefit the environment and decentralize the main grid by creating multiple micro-grids.  

A micro-grid is a self-contained grid that exists in a larger grid.  Micro-grids can serve many beneficial purposes.  In the case of an interruption in the main grid, a micro-grid could disconnect itself and supply the loads it is connected to with energy that has been stored from the main grid or a renewable energy source (i.e., wind turbine, photo-voltaic, or combined heat and power).  The micro-grid could also supply the main grid with power in the event that it has generated an excess of power, or when the grid does not have enough power to support other micro-grids.  This idea creates multiple power grids working together to save energy, or to supply energy in the event of an emergency.  The main idea for this concept is that all of these events could occur without consumers having any idea of problems in the grid.  This becomes another advantage of the smart-grid because the grid is intelligent and will know when to take power, where to get it from, and where to distribute it, automatically.  

When dealing with micro-grids many problems must be analyzed before they can be put to use.  The main problems with micro-grids are stability and voltage regulation.  Keeping constant frequencies, regulating voltage levels, and preventing losses of power are difficult tasks when dealing with multiple sources and a two-way flow of energy.  

The European Union has set up the Strategic Research Agenda (SRA), which focuses on getting every aspect of the future of the smart-grid headed in the right direction.  The SRA has set organized government, non-government, and civilian attention focused on the benefits of the conversion to the smart-grid.  One of the problems with the European Union is getting each member country to agree with the transformation. The European Union states it will invest over 750 billion euros over the course of the next thirty years in hopes to accomplish their goals by the year 2030.  With research and testing, they are proposing more reliable, cleaner, and economic friendly way of energy production and consumption.  

At the same time, the United States is also taking measures to modernize their electrical grid.  Many organizations and universities are developing plans to get the process moving.  For one, the Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI) is setting up goals to open the door to the future of grid technology.  Their main focus consists of getting consumers more involved with the pricing of their power, meaning making it more obvious as to exactly how much power a household or industry is using at any given time.  The two-way interaction between manufacturer and consumer, and security issue is also part of their plan.  The United States' main goal is to protect its power grid system from any interruptions.  Recent events such as the East Coast black out in August of 2003 raised concerns that the grid needs to be more secure and less susceptible to black outs.  

It is estimated that the United States economy looses about 25 to 180 billion dollars a year due to power outages.  America plans to set up an intelligent-grid that will be able to detect if there will be an outage before it even happens.  For example, if a major power line shows signs of failure, a computer controlling that part of the grid will find the best way to reroute power from somewhere else and restore power to the affected area before any consumers even know something is wrong.  To achieve this technique in high power transmission, the United States is developing technologies in high-temperature, superconducting cables.  High-temperature superconducting cables show very little, if any, loss in energy transmission over large distances.  Researchers are calling this the "Electrical Backbone" for the grid.  For example, this is very useful in the event that if an outage were to occur in California, extra power from New York may be rerouted to help prevent the potential outage.

In order for the United States to begin this long range transmission, businesses must take over the market.  New ways of selling power will be developed by selling different types of power.  For example, in the event of a heat wave, many households will use their air conditioners and the demand for electricity will become very high.  Consumers will now be able to make agreements for scenarios like this, that they will not use as much power so that industry that needs the power more at that time will get it efficiently.  Agreements like this will give consumers more flexibility with their expenses on energy and end up being more economically sound in the long run.  The Electric Delivery Technologies Roadmap is calling this Grid 2030.  The United States' government, along with non-governmental agencies, is spending billions of dollars for research and development to get this project underway and bring the old grid system up to date with the evolving technological age.

The European Union and the United States are taking different steps in order to update their grid systems.  Many of their ideas are similar because both want to achieve a more interactive grid between manufacturers and consumers, and be up to date with the new digital age.  With the help of government and non-governmental organizations, a new job market and money making business can come out of the transition to the future grid system, bringing more revenue in energy sales.  Both governments are taking steps to help decrease and even prevent power outages, each in a different way.  The European Union is more focused on using micro-grids and renewable energy sources, while in comparison the United States is more focused on shifting power from further distances across the nation to prevent black outs.  The European Union's main goal is to make the whole system more environmentally friendly, while the United States is making the grid more stable.  

Each government agrees that the main problem in getting the new system to work is technological incapability.  This is because it would be impossible to tear out the existing grid and start from scratch.  The new smart-grid must be designed by engineers to adapt to existing grids that are already in place, which creates much difficulty.  More testing must be done, and the technology must be perfected in order for the  system to work as a whole.  

Today there is a lack of power engineers being trained in this field, so each government is encouraging people to learn about the possibilities of future jobs in power distribution.  One of the main problems is that people that are in the field now are used to the past ways of power generation and distribution and feel that is the only way to go.  The whole transition will take lots of time and the realization that a better, more reliable smart-grid is coming along the way.]]> Investigating the Saw Mill River tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.22 2008-02-16T04:29:28Z 2008-03-03T21:19:39Z The Effect of Urban Runoff on the Water Quality of Our Local Rivers and Streams Dr. Richard Carbonaro IM001224.jpgNew York City is indisputably an urban environment. As such, urban runoff is a leading cause of impairment to its rivers and streams.   Large cities have high percentages of impervious surfaces such as roads and parking lots.  
]]> As rain falls on these surfaces, it does not percolate to the subsurface, and instead runs off the land, carrying contamination along with it (USEPA 2000).  Pollutants usually associated with urban runoff include nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous), metals (e.g. cadmium, copper, lead and zinc), and coliform bacteria (USEPA 2005).  The Civil and Environmental Engineering Department has been investigating the effect of urban runoff on the water quality of two local water-bodies:  Tibbetts Brook and the Saw Mill River.

IMG_0216.jpgFor each of the past three years, an assessment of the water quality of Tibbetts Brook has been the final project for the ENGS 115 Environmental Module. Tibbetts Brook is a small freshwater stream that travels from Yonkers into the Bronx through marshlands in the northern end of Van Cortlandt Park.  The brook discharges into Van Cortlandt Lake at the southern end of the park, and the lake outflow is conveyed underground to the Harlem River.   Each year, the ENGS 115 class has designed a water quality sampling plan for the stream, learned proper water quality sampling and laboratory techniques, and analyzed the data to assess whether Tibbetts Brook and Van Cortlandt Lake are impaired due to excessive bacteria, nutrients or metals concentrations.  The project culminates in a final presentation that is made to faculty and students within the CEEN department.   On occasion, members of the NYC Parks Department have also attended planning meetings and the final presentations.  If anyone is interested in hearing about the water quality of Tibbetts Brook or Van Cortlandt Lake, talk to the undergraduate students who have been involved with this project for the past few years.

The Saw Mill River is a tributary to the Hudson River in the Lower Hudson River Drainage Basin.  The River has several designated uses over its entire stretch, indicating diverse surroundings as it travels from Chappaqua to Yonkers, NY where it eventually discharges into the Hudson River.  Additionally, along the Yonkers stretch, the river has been severely altered over the past 30 years by flood control projects and re-routing (Pearce 1999).  The most extreme case of this is in south Yonkers, where the river has a concrete bottom and eventually flows underground for its final 800 feet before reaching the Hudson.   According to USGS estimates (Wall, Riva-Murray et al. 1998), the Saw Mill River watershed of 23.8 mi2 is 63.4% urban, 35.4% forested, and 1.0% agricultural.  This high percentage of urban areas makes the Saw Mill susceptible to contamination from urban runoff.
 
In the summer of 2006, a year-long continuous monitoring program was implemented for the Saw Mill River.  External funding was provided by the New York State Water Resources Institute.  Undergraduates Jason Lumish and Erica Hanley from the CEEN Department took the lead on this work, working full-time for 10 weeks during the summer with additional time spent during the semester.  This work also included partnerships with Groundwork Yonkers and Saunders Trade and Technical High School in Yonkers.  Groundwork Yonkers is a non-profit organization developed in 1999 dedicated to revitalizing, greening, and connecting people to the urban environment in lower Westchester County.  Groundwork Yonkers is the coordinator of the Saw Mill River Coalition, a partnership of non-profit groups, government agencies, and businesses, aimed to revitalize and protect the Saw Mill watershed.   The Coalition played a vital role in disseminating the results of our study to local stakeholders in the Saw Mill River watershed.  Two students from Saunders Trade and Technical High School in Yonkers, Nicole Kerrison and Leslie Guadron, were involved in field sampling and laboratory analysis of water quality parameters through a paid summer internship.   Nicole and Leslie worked in the CEEN laboratories three days a week for eight weeks.   After the conclusion of her work on the project, Nicole continued working in the CEEN labs as part of her senior project.

12 sampling sites along the Saw Mill River (Figure 1) were selected for monitoring.  The following water quality parameters related to urban runoff were measured at each site: nutrients (ammonia, nitrate and total phosphorous) and fecal coliform bacteria.  Temperature, conductivity, pH, total suspended solids and turbidity were also measured.   As an illustration of the findings of this study, the results of fecal coliform bacteria are presented below.  The complete dataset will be made available on the Saw Mill River Coalition website (http://www.sawmillrivercoalition.com).  

Fecal Coliform Bacteria
Total coliform bacteria are a collection of relatively harmless microorganisms that reside in the intestines of warm and cold-blooded animals.  The fecal coliform bacteria are a specific subgroup of the total coliform bacteria, which are associated only with the fecal material of warm-blooded animals.  The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in aquatic environments indicates that the water has been contaminated with fecal material.   Thus, water high fecal coliform bacteria counts may have been contaminated by pathogens which can also exist in fecal material.  Examples of waterborne pathogenic diseases include typhoid fever, viral and bacterial gastroenteritis, and hepatitis A.   The presence of fecal coliform bacteria is an indicator that a potential health risk exists for individuals exposed to this water.   Elevated levels of fecal coliform bacteria occur in surface waters as a result of the overflow of domestic sewage or nonpoint sources of human and animal waste.

Monitoring results for fecal coliform bacteria are presented in Figures 2 and 3.  In Figure 1, a box plot is used to show spatial variability in fecal coliform bacteria concentrations along the entire stretch of the Saw Mill River.   The boundary of the box closest to a value of zero on the y-axis indicates the 25th percentile, a line within the box marks the median, and the boundary of the box farthest from zero indicates the 75th percentile.  The error bars above and below the box indicate the 90th and 10th percentiles, respectively.   Sample sites S11 (Torre Pl., Yonkers, NY) and S12 (Walsh Rd., Yonkers, NY) had the highest median fecal coliform counts.  These two sites are the southern-most sites sampled, and are in a highly urbanized area of downtown Yonkers.  Median fecal coliforms of all other sites were extremely constant.   Sample site S1 (Chappaqua Metro North Station), does not have a significantly different median than sites S2 - S10, however, the highest single fecal coliform measurements were for this site (1.2×105 and 8.4×104 org/100 mL). 

In Figure 3, fecal coliform bacteria is shown as a function of time at sample stations S1, S4, S8 and S12.  Also indicated on the plot is the daily precipitation recorded at Westchester County Airport.  An increase in fecal coliform bacteria seems to be associated with rainfall events.  This can be seen in the plots by examining data points that fall in or slightly to the right of significant rainfall events (more than 1.0 inch/day).  These data points are consistently higher than baseline for all sample sites.
 
All median fecal coliform bacteria values were above 200 org./100 mL.  This is significant because the NYS DEC criteria (1999) for fecal colifoms states that the monthly geometric mean, from a minimum of five examinations, shall not exceed 200 org./100 mL.   Bacterial contamination can originate from point or nonpoint sources.  Point sources may include municipal or Industrial discharges of wastewater.   Nonpoint sources may include storm water runoff, animal waste, application of manure and biosolids to fields, crop irrigation from contaminated storage ponds, failed septic systems, litter or landfill leakage, or direct discharge of marine-craft sewage.   For the Saw Mill River watershed, stormwater runoff, and municipal wastewater discharges are likely causes of the observed high fecal coliform bacteria counts.

Typical pollutant concentrations found in typical urban storm water runoff are on the order of 3600 org./100 mL (MDE 1999).  While fecal coliform bacteria are subject to inactivation upon direct exposure to sunlight, portions of the Saw Mill River are under canopy and rapid die-off is unlikely.   It is therefore possible that the high baseline levels of fecal coliform bacteria are the due directly to urban run-off.

Wastewater generated from much of the area of the Saw Mill River is treated by only the Yonkers Wastewater Treatment plant (Mulligan, Buroughs et al. 2005).   This plant serves a population of half a million people, a total area of 108 mi2 and receives an average daily flow of 96 million gallons per day (Mulligan, Buroughs et al. 2005).  Thus, wastewater generated in the upper Saw Mill River watershed travels south through county trunk lines until it reaches the Yonkers WWTP.  While the recorded values at site S1 may seem extremely high (≈105 org/100mL), they are significant less than levels commonly found in raw sewage and sewer overflows.  Typical fecal coliform bacteria concentrations in raw sewage are on the order of 107 org/100 mL (Thomann and Mueller 1987).   A 1:100 dilution of raw sewage therefore puts it into the range of our observed values.   Coliform bacteria in combined sewer overflows range from 105 to 106 org./100 mL (Thomann and Mueller 1987).   Sewer overflows occurring during wet weather in the upper watershed may therefore be responsible for high fecal coliform bacteria counts at site S1.

For the two sites in Yonkers (S11 and S12), the source of the high coliform levels do not appear to be weather related.  The surrounding area is highly urbanized and has the largest density of impervious services.   Thus, stormwater runoff may be a contributing a larger load in this area than at the more sub-urban upstream sites.  In addition, sewage discharges from homes or businesses tied to storm sewers may be present in this older section of Yonkers.   Further investigation is required if such connections exist.

Works Cited

1. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (1999). Surface Water and Groundwater Quality Standards and Groundwater Effluent Limitations. 6 NYCRR Part 703.

2. Maryland Department of the Environment (1999). Maryland Stormwater Design Manual. Annapolis, MD, Maryland Department of the Environment.

3. Mulligan, G. E., E. Buroughs, et al. (2005). Databook Westchester County. White Plains, NY, Westchester County Department of Planning.

4. Pearce, W. H. (1999). Saw Mill River Basin, New York.  Reconnaissance study for flood control & ecosystem restoration.  Section 905(b) (WDRA 86) preliminary analysis, US Army Core of Engineers: 27.

5. Thomann, R. V. and J. A. Mueller (1987). Principles of Surface Water Modeling and Control. New York, NY, Harper Collins.

6. USEPA (2000). National Water Quality Inventory, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

7. USEPA (2005). National Management Measures to Control Nonpoint Source Pollution from Urban Areas. Washington, D.C., United States Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water.

8. Wall, G. R., K. Riva-Murray, et al. (1998). Water Quality in the Hudson River Basin, New York and Adjacent States, 1992-1995. U. U.S. Department of the Interior, USGS

]]> Algorithms and their Applications in Biology tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.16 2008-02-16T04:59:59Z 2008-03-04T15:26:49Z John Bekisz Jr. algorithms-web.jpgDuring the second half of the last century, the development of computers and computer simulation has given way to many advances in our society.  Many fields such as medicine have been using computers to database patients and to simulate research objectives.  Throughout the past centuries, our understanding of the human anatomy and medicine has been increasing at exponential rates, from the development of the pace maker to the mapping of the human genome. 

The combination of computer programming and biological research is a fast growing division of universities nationwide and professionals around the globe.  These researchers are using algorithms to simulate everything from the splitting of bacterium to the growth habits of viruses.  An algorithm is a routine that can be written in any necessary computer programming language that accomplishes the required task at hand.]]>
The Link

The link between biology and computer science can be clearly seen in a simple Google search of the phrase "algorithms in biology."  Of the 3.26 million results returned, the majority of the results list courses that are offered at universities and colleges nationwide.  CPS 296.4 - Algorithms in Structural Molecular Biology is offered at Duke University, Algorithms for Computational Biology is offered at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and CS 374 Algorithms in Biology at Stanford are just some of the hundreds of courses offered throughout the nation.  This surge of courses specifically, aimed at learning essential computer algorithms for use in the biological sciences, suggests the importance of this field.  What really is the importance and relationship between algorithms and biology that makes certain universities put such an emphasis on the subject? 

The human body has always been considered a machine.  This machine operates in mechanical and digital ways.  Our joints and muscles coordinate with each other in the same way mechanical devices operate.  Similarly, our minds and nervous system behave like a digital system: electrical signals are sent and received at light speed through our neurons to produce the required action or reaction. 

Recent advances in the field of biology have led to the development and need for computer based simulation.  Some of these advances include the cracking of the human genome. As more and more information is discovered about the building block of human life, the cures to diseases and other ailments are surfacing.  Biologists and scientists are now looking for ways to digitally duplicate and simulate the human genome by using computers.  This can only be done through complex algorithms and computer systems. 

Folding @ Home

Protein is an essential nutrient and a basic building block for all living things.  It is usually comprised of many different types of atoms and forms, many varying molecules which accomplished all varying tasks when brought into the body.  The tasks performed by proteins can be both good or bad, depending on how the molecule is constructed, or as biologists refer to it, how the protein is folded.  The Folding @ Home program is a volunteer program where users can download software from the project's website and lend their idle processor time to the research being done on protein folding. 

The computer software installed on the servers at Stanford University uses a volunteer's computer's idle processing power to compute incredibly complex and difficult equations and algorithms that mimic and simulate how proteins in the human genome fold.   These simulations give researchers a better understanding of diseases that are formed from protein building and how to counteract or prevent them.  The Stanford team writes on their website, "Computer simulation is particularly well suited to address these questions [how molecules assemble themselves], as it naturally lends itself to thermodynamics, kinetic, and atomic level structure detail" (Pande). 

This program has been made available to common personal computer users by simply downloading the software to their desktop.  More recently, the Folding @ Home program has been preinstalled on all Playstation 3 units, Sony's newest and most powerful video game console.  With the newly developed IBM 3.2GHz Cell Processor, the Playstation 3 has plenty of powerful hardware that can be put to good use when not being played.  The consumer has the option to turn Folding @ Home on and donate their game console to the research being done at Stanford.

Strings, Trees, and Sequences

The majority of biological research done using algorithms is on the molecular level.  One of the most important algorithms used by biologists at the molecular level is a pattern recognition algorithm.  This software simulates and computes various known DNA configurations and searches for patterns that may lead to cancer or other human diseases. 

In his book, Algorithms on Strings, Trees and Sequences: Computer Science and Computational Biology, Dan Gusfield states in the introduction that:

The digital information that underlies biochemistry ... can be represented by a simple string of G's, A's, T's and C's.  This string is the root data structure of an organism's biology. (Gusfield xiii)

The author continues by outlining a similar important statement regarding biology and computer algorithms by writing that "biology is all about sequences."  Between the author's mention of sequences and structures, any computer scientist, or anyone familiar with object based program languages like C, C#, or Java, immediately sees the need for sorting or comparison algorithms in the field of biology.

Using computer generated sequences of strings based on real life DNA, comparison algorithms were used to find illness patterns between strings of DNA.  Gusfield lists a variety of different algorithms that are most prominently used.  These algorithms are discussed more in depth in the chapters of his book.  The algorithms discussed include: "storing, retrieving, and comparing DNA strings; ... determining physical and genetic maps from probe data under various experimental protocol; ... looking for new or ill-defined patterns occurring frequently in DNA; ... looking for structural patterns in DNA and protein" (xiii - xiv). 

By using complex string based algorithms, scientists can accurately recreate the exact behavioral properties of real DNA.  This allows for accurate measurement without having to deal with delicate and degradable DNA samples.  The algorithms used can accept recorded strings of DNA, which represent real, recorded strings and compare them to others in the current databases.  The different strings of DNA are labeled either by disease, sex, or many other different categories, and then the algorithms can search and compare all these different strings. As a result, the similarity or difference between strings with varying classifications can be compared and may lead to breakthroughs in disease curing or disease stabilization. 

What Algorithms?

The Needleman-Wunsch algorithm is the most popular algorithm in biological simulation and studies for genome research.  This algorithm was developed in 1970 by Saul Needleman and Christian Wunsch.  The Needleman-Wunsch algorithm is used to align separate sequences so that certain characteristics align. For example, when being used on two separate strings of DNA, the algorithm will align the A, G, C, or T proteins that make up DNA into the most logical alignment. 

The Smith-Waterman algorithm is also used in biological research pertaining specifically to DNA sorting and sequential alignment.  Unlike the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm, which tries to align the entire segment, the Smith-Waterman algorithm compares only segments of the possible lengths and optimizes these for similarities. 

The Viterbi algorithm is yet another algorithm that is specifically used for finding the most common sequence within a number of different states.  This unique algorithm is highly dependent on time and can be used when some variables are unknown.  It specializes in finding sequences and similarities between variables, especially the indefinite. 

These various sequencing algorithms can be used to map, organize, and compare strings of DNA that are too complex to be done with pen and pad.  The computer algorithms can also create a three dimensional visualization of these genome sequences that can give scientists and researches a new view into the world of molecular biology. 

Simulation

Object oriented programming and algorithms written in these languages allows users (scientists and biologists) to create extensive three dimensional images and varying simulations of the human genome and other molecular structures.  When analyzing tens of thousands of gene variations, scientists will require massive and incredibly powerful computer simulation and computer modeling.  These models can give scientists a clear view of molecular structures, including the specific proteins that make up individual strands of the human genome.  

The use of computers in all life sciences has been booming for the past few years.  Now that the human genome has been unlocked, the door for computer scientists to work in the field of biology developing various simulation algorithms has opened.  These different algorithms will help scientists predict the behavior of certain proteins and hopefully lead to the discovery of new cures and aids to worldwide diseases. 

Computers can aid consumers in more ways than entertainment and office productivity.  Through highly developed and advanced algorithms, computers can be used to map proteins, human DNA, and sort through databases of these items to find similarities and differences. This may be the key to unlocking some of the most challenging and interesting questions about evolution and molecular development.  

References
Gusfield, Dan.  Algorithms on Strings, Trees, and Sequences: Computer Science and Computational Biology.  Cambridge University Press.  1997.

Pande, Vijay.  Folding@home.  Web: http://folding.stanford.edu/Pande/Main.  Available: November 19, 2007.  2000 - 2007. 

Pattern Recognition Algorithms for Biology. Web: http://www1.uea.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.3621!algorithmsbiology.pdf. Available: November 19, 2007.  2000 - 2007.

Stanford University.  Folding@home. Web: http://folding.stanford.edu/English/Main. Available: November 19, 2007.  2000 - 2007.

Tucker, Allen B.  Computer Science Handbook.  CRC Press. 2004.
]]> Green Buildings tag:mcengineer.org,2008://1.14 2008-02-16T04:59:59Z 2008-02-20T15:50:53Z Andrew Manfredi Thumbnail image for greenhouse.jpgThe consumption of fossil fuels is one of the biggest problems in today's society.  Though cars get blamed as the culprit, buildings consume about half of the energy in the world today (Gissen).  Mechanical systems within the building are now being redesigned and rethought to consume less energy. 
]]> Architects and engineers are designing buildings to utilize light and air in more efficient ways.  Construction practices have been reexamined too.  Materials to create buildings - concrete, steel, wood, plastics - generate environmental problems because of the toxic chemicals and energy put into them that make them fireproof or waterproof (Gissen).  Engineers, construction companies, architects, and developers have teamed up to practice "building green."

Apartment and office buildings that consume energy and resources have been built to specifically reduce their environmental footprint on society.  However, anyone can call a building "green."  To legitimize the principle of "sustainable development" on buildings, the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) created a rating system to award buildings that demonstrate "Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)." The certification board examines five different areas of green practice in the building, including, "human and environmental health; sustainable site development; water savings; energy efficiency; materials selection; and indoor environmental quality" (Bauld). The LEED system offers four different types of ratings based off of its green features and construction practices.  The system's "platinum" rating is the highest, then gold, followed by silver, and finally certified (Padalka).

Green roofs, a standard in any building that wants to achieve LEED certification, offer multiple benefits versus the standard black-top roof. A green roof is a roof of a building that is partially or fully covered with soil and planted vegetation across a waterproof membrane. Green roof functions include reducing the amount of storm-water run-off and lowering the amount of energy needed to keep a building at a comfortable temperature.  Other benefits that a green roof provides are added green-space to the urban environment, minimized urban heat-island effect, increased air-quality levels, and elongating the life-span of the roof (Oberndorfer).

Storm-water run-off can be devastating to a local eco-system.  Sewage overflow during periods of rain contains high amounts of pesticides and petroleum residues that contaminate drinking supplies and hurt local wildlife.  Green roofs reduce the amount of storm-water run-off by retaining water during rainstorms.  The system will then discharge that water slowly into the sewage system or recycle the water for other purposes.  Studies in Portland, Oregon and East Lansing, Michigan have showed that green roofs retain 66% to 69% of run-off for a roof with more than ten centimeters of substrate.  Other studies have shown that green roofs can reduce the storm-water run-off effect by 60% to 79% as compared to other normal roofs (Oberndorfer).

During the typical summer months, the amount of energy needed to keep the building at a comfortable temperature increases. Studies have shown that green roofs cut down the amount of energy needed to keep the building cool by about 10% -- lowering the stress on the building's cooling system.  In general, green roofs have the greatest effect on energy usage for buildings with a high roof to wall ratio (Oberndorfer).

Green roofs reduce the heat flux by three mechanisms: evapotranspiration, physically shading the roof from the sun's rays, and increasing insulation.  In the summer of 2002, Penn State University did a study on the amount of water vapor that a green roof would actually evaporate and transpire as compared to other vegetative areas.  The study concluded that a green roof acts comparably to a wet habitat (i.e. a bog), showing that evapotranspiration is the most important contributor of reducing the heat flux.  Green roofs, in addition to better insulation throughout the building, can lead to a building that can reduce its energy consumption (Oberndorfer).

Green roofs are not the only thing that awards buildings LEED points. The LEED certification board looks at all scopes of the project for green aspects, including the early construction stages and choice of materials.  Construction practices require that construction waste be recycled, and that materials used in the buildings development be part of the building's "sustainable development."  Construction companies have resorted to using materials such as recycled steel, concrete made of recycled materials, and bamboo.  These substances are environmentally sensitive as well as economically advantageous.

In the long run, concrete uses fewer natural resources than any other building material.  Concrete can be recycled, and a lot of recycled materials are used in concrete production.  In addition, concrete's thermal mass properties, and its ability to be a good insulator, make it attractive.  Concrete buildings are said to decrease temperatures by about five degrees Fahrenheit and cut air conditioner usage by 18% in the summer months (Popovich).

The Helena, located on West 57th and 11th Avenue in Manhattan, pursued a silver ranking from the U.S. Green Buildings Council. This 37-story, 600 unit, residential building, owned and funded by Durst Organization Inc., gave contractors three main problems in construction.  The first problem was the issue of waste management.  LEED standards require that paper, plastic, wood, and metal are segregated so that they can be recycled and diverted from the landfill.  The construction corporation hired a waste management company to haul these materials and then take them away from the construction site.  This earned the Helena LEED points for diverting material from landfills.  The second problem that had to be addressed was erosion and sedimentation control.  To prevent soil from leaving the construction site and entering into the sewage system, and eventually dumping out into rivers and streams, the contractor installed gravel-pit systems.  The third problem encountered was to maintain the indoor air quality of the building during construction.  This was solved by carefully covering ductwork so that contaminants from the outside did not affect the indoor air quality of the building (Choi).

The apartment units in the Helena were constructed using renewable materials. For example, the floors were made of bamboo and the cabinets were made of wheatboard.  Bamboo and wheatboard are both more environmentally sensitive than the traditional pine or oak used in constructing floors and cabinets.  The glass used for the windows are of high-quality, and there is little heat penetration or heat lost through the windows, conserving heat in the winter and cold in the summer (Choi).

The LEED also awards points if the building reduces water usage up to 20% and then 30%.  One way this is done, is by using grey-water for use in toilet flushing or urinal flushing.  Grey-water is collected storm water run-off and water from showers.  Other fixtures include using low-flow shower heads, which flow at only 1.5 gallons per minute.  In addition, the standard toilets and urinals use 1.6 gallons per flush (gpf) and 1 gallon per flush respectively.  Newer urinals, aiming to cut water consumption use in half, and newer toilets aim to get around 1.35 gallons per flush instead of the typical 1.6.  With these simple measures, for a 100,000 square foot office building with 650 occupants each using on average 20 gallons per day, water use can be cut by about one million gallons per year (Allen).

Additionally, green buildings provide for an economic advantage.  At first, building green was considered a desired, but unreachable, goal. Today, the stamp that a building is green provides a nice little attribute that developers like to tout to consumers (Padalka).  Green buildings have created their own tiny marketplace within society.  The reasons are political, consumer-based, and lower costs.
 
The creation of the LEED rating system has provided some accountability as to what a green building is in the market.  The programs popularity has increased exponentially.  In New York City, five buildings are already certified by the United States Green Building Council, while another 91 buildings are waiting for approval  (Neuman).  Another driving force for the green building marketplace is the laws that have been passed by local governments, in particular, Battery Park City. The passing of the mandate that any future buildings in Battery Park City must be green puts contractors at their heels.  Ashok Gupta, director of the Natural Resources Defense Council's air and energy program, believes that the market impacts will be huge, and that an, "increase in ecofriendly construction will drive down costs and encourage more private developers to go green" (Engquist).

According to various reports, apartment buildings with the green stamp attract consumers more so than apartment buildings without the green stamp.   Today, according to Daniel Tishman, CEO of Tishman Construction explained that consumers are willing to pay a premium for living a green lifestyle.  Tishman goes on to explain the current trend in green lifestyles, "We are starting to see that tenants understand that living in a green building is living in a healthy building" (Padalka).  Mrs. Brandenmeyer, a tenant in the Solaire, at first didn't pay notice to the fact that their building was environmentally sensitive, but viewed it more as a novelty.  She and her husband pay 6,500 dollars a month for their three-bedroom, three bath apartment, which is above the average rent for the building.  However, Mrs. Brandenmeyer's views have changed drastically, "the green part of the building is the most important to me.  I think it should be the standard.  It's night and day different, the quality of living" (Neuman).

The cost of building green has also gone down significantly over the years, making it more feasible for contractors and developers to build green.  Albanese Corporation spent 120 million dollars on building the Solaire, the first residential Green Building.  From those 120 million dollars, 15 to 17 percent of the money went towards making the Solaire green. However, after the Solaire, the Albanse Corporation went on to build the Verdesian, where only 8 percent of the added costs went towards the building's green features (Neuman).  Since then, added green costs tend to average from two to eight percent of a premium (Padalka).  The reason for such a price drop is mostly due to the fact that construction materials for green buildings have also decreased.  At first, according to Mr. Albanese, materials such as chemical free paints, sustainable harvested wood, and photovoltaic cells for solar power were not only difficult to come by, but expensive as well (Neuman).  Now, prices for these materials have dropped significantly.  Chemical-free paint can be found in Home Depot, and bamboo is constantly being utilized to build green ("The Helena").  The biggest example can be seen in the growth of the photovoltaic industry.  According to altPOWER, a sustainable energy consultant in New York City, the photovoltaic industry has grown 20 to 30 percent over the past few years.  The increase in business has also led to price drops across the board for solar power being introduced into green buildings.  With price drops and a better understanding of the cost of green materials, construction companies and developers can better estimate the costs of a green building, making the task seem more desirable and less daunting (Padalka).

Not only have there been price drops in materials, building green has given developers tax breaks that add to the amount of money that can be saved.  New York State's Green Building Tax Credit started in 2000 and offered state tax credit for builders that built sustainable, or built green.  The program called for $3.75 per square foot for interior work that met green standards, and $7.50 per square foot for exterior work on the building that met green standards.  In addition, the New York State Energy Research and Development Authority provides for further economic compensation for green buildings (Padalka).

Sustainable development in engineering is an important principle that must always be considered when starting a new project.  Green buildings fit the definition of sustainable development.  The importance of preserving the environment, especially in such an urban setting like New York City, should always be an important factor.  However, sometimes the goal of "saving the planet" is too lofty and even more important, too expensive.  That is not the case in green buildings.  They are environmentally friendly and economically sound.

Works Cited

 Allen, Jim. "Water Efficiency." Environmental Design + Construction. Troy: May 2004, Vol. 7, Iss. 4. 65.

Bauld, Stephen. "LEEDing into the Future." Summit. Ottawa: Oct 2007, Vol. 10, Iss. 6. 12.

Choi, Amy S. "The Helena; Silver and Green Are the Colors in Question." New York Construction 51.8 (Jan. 2004): 25.

Engquist, Erik. "Ambitious 'Green' Law Will Overhaul how City Builds." Crain's New York Business 31 July 2006: 26.

Gissen, David. Big and Green. New York: Princeton Architectual Press, 2003.

Neuman, William. "It's Getting Easier to be Green." The New York Times 13 Aug 2006, late ed.: 11.1

Oberndorfer, Erica, et al. "Green Roofs as Urban Ecosystems: Ecological Structures, Functions, and Services." Bioscience. Washingtion: Nov 2007, Vol. 57, Iss. 10. 823.

Padalka, Alex. "Green Economics." New York Construction 52.8 (Mar. 2005): 39.

Popovich, Charles M Jr. "Building Green with Tilt-Up." Concrete Concepts. Fort Atkinson: Sep/Aug 2005, Vol. 4, Iss. 6. 22.

"12 The Helena." New York Construction 51.12 (June 2004): 83.
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